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By Christine Maggiore
This is a chapter from the book
What if everything you thought about AIDS was wrong?
© Christine Maggiore
https://www.aliveandwell.org/html/viral_load_tcell/viral_load.html

One glaring problem with the HIV/AIDS hypothesis is that researchers have been unable to find enough HIV (actual virus) in people who test positive to explain compromised health. Even among patients suffering from the most severe AIDS-defining illnesses, HIV is never detected in quantities that could cause depletion of immune cells.135

In order to cause harm, a virus needs to infect at least one-third of all target cells, which in the case of AIDS are the T cells of the immune system, and kill these cells faster than they can be replaced. For example, with hepatitis or a common cold or flu, the responsible virus is readily found in quantities measuring millions or billions per milliliter (mL) of blood, and nothing can stop the virus from infecting all susceptible cells in the body except antiviral immunity. With AIDS, an average of only ten HIVs are found per mL of blood, and the normal sign of antiviral immunity, antibodies, are said to indicate illness.136

Another inconsistency with the idea that HIV causes AIDS is that HIV is non-cytotoxic. This means that when HIV replicates, it does not kill the host cell. Other viruses that cause disease are cytotoxic; they destroy the cell they infect when they reproduce, and rapidly claim 30% to 60% of target cells. Since the acceptance of HIV as the cause of AIDS in 1984, AIDS researchers have proposed a multitude of hypotheses about HIV's ability to provoke cell destruction through elaborate and as yet unproven indirect mechanisms while searching in vain for ways to explain how a non-cytotoxic virus can eliminate T cells and cause AIDS.

For almost a decade, the latency notion was used to justify some of the paradoxical qualities attributed to HIV. Experts claimed that HIV was a slow virus that remained inactive or latent for a period of time before becoming active and destroying immune cells. This idea gained universal acceptance despite the fact that significant quantities of HIV were not found when HIV should have been at its most active when AIDS patients are acutely ill.137

The loose ends of the HIV hypothesis were finally thought to have been tied in 1995 with two papers by a team of AIDS researchers led by Dr. David Ho of the Aaron Diamond Research Center and Dr. George Shaw of the University of Alabama. Ho and Shaw offered what they characterized as indisputable evidence that HIV is active from the moment of infection, and present in quantities sufficient to cause massive T cell destruction.138 They claimed to find an average of over 100,000 HIVs per mL of blood in AIDS patients by using a virus counting method based on the new technology of polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

Their papers asserted that HIV has always been present and active in enormous quantities, but that its presence and activity could not be measured by standard means, and that scientists were looking for the wrong thing to measure. Until 1995, the method for finding and quantifying a virus was by isolation of the virus. This simple, direct method has been successfully applied to every virus except HIV. Instead, proponents of viral load assert that scientists must look for fragments of genetic materials rather than isolating the virus.

PCR is an innovative technique that enables scientists to take a sample of blood containing an otherwise undetectable number of DNA or RNA molecules and produce detectable quantities of fragments from these few original molecules. Forbes magazine described PCR as "biotechnology's version of the Xerox machine." Dr. Kary Mullis, who won a Nobel Prize for this revolutionary creation, explains that "PCR makes it possible to identify a needle in a haystack by turning the needle into a haystack."139 While PCR has provided many realms of science and industry with an effective new tool, its application to AIDS research has been far more misleading than useful.

Ho and other researchers employed PCR to find, not HIV, but fragments of RNA, the genetic material in the viral core. Using the logic that each HIV virus particle contains two HIV RNAs, they assumed that every two RNA pieces indicated by PCR must correspond to one HIV viral particle, and they called the sum of what is copied, multiplied, counted, and divided, "viral load."

Viral load has been celebrated in the press as an astounding breakthrough in AIDS research, and has won Dr. David Ho numerous awards including Time magazine's 1996 Man of the Year. Viral load is also the measure by which new AIDS drugs are deemed effective. Protease inhibitors were approved for use based solely on their alleged ability to reduce "viral load." The media, AIDS organizations and most AIDS doctors have uncritically accepted the viral load hypothesis as fact.

According to the viral load hypothesis, billions of HIV are busy infecting CD4 T cells every day from the moment a person is exposed, and killer immune cells (CD8 T cells) continuously destroy billions of CD4 cells that host active HIV infection, while new, uninfected CD4s quickly replace the billions destroyed by the killer cells.140 Eventually, after one to 15 years of this microscopic battle, the virus wears out the immune system allowing AIDS-defining illnesses to develop. Proponents of viral load claim that the reason this incredible activity was never noticed before is that the CD4s replicate so quickly, few HIV infected T cells ever make it into the blood where they can be measured.140

However, the viral load hypothesis fails to answer two important and unsettling questions: If billions of HIV are present, why is PCR necessary to find them? And if PCR is the only way HIV can be detected, how is it possible for scientists to verify the results of PCR?

Another problem with viral load is that PCR detects and multiplies single genes, not virus, and most often only fragments of genes. When it detects two or three genetic fragments out of a possible dozen complete genes, this is not proof that all the genes or the complete genome are present, or that a complete HIV viral particle is present.141 Further, a person can carry a whole retroviral genome in their cells for an entire lifetime without ever producing a single virus.

The FDA has not approved PCR viral load for HIV screening or for diagnostic purposes. The CDC acknowledges that the specificity and sensitivity of PCR are "unknown" and that "PCR is not recommended and is not licensed for routine diagnostic purposes."142 The viral load test manufacturers' literature warn "the test is not intended to be used as a screening test for HIV or as a diagnostic test to confirm the presence of HIV..."143

Although no research has specifically studied PCR tests on HIV negative subjects, the medical literature records many incidents of detectable levels of viral load found in persons who are HIV negative.144

A group of AIDS researchers from the Johns Hopkins School of Public Health recently lamented the inaccuracies of PCR viral load, describing the test as unreliable and expensive when several attempts to verify PCR produced conflicting results.145 A recent paper by AIDS reappraiser Dr. David Rasnick published in the Journal of Biological Chemistry demonstrates that at least 99.8% of what viral load tests measure are noninfectious virus particles, and notes that PCR should be replaced by a test that measures actual HIV in blood plasma.146

Why You Cannot Count on Viral Load

  • Viral load tests detect and multiply only fragments of genes, not HIV.

  • Test manufacturers warn that viral load cannot confirm the presence of HIV.

  • The FDA has not approved viral load tests for diagnostic use.

  • Viral loads are found in healthy people who test HIV negative.

  • High viral loads do not correlate with low T cells or illness.

  • Low viral loads do not correlate with high T cells or wellness.

Although PCR viral load tests are unable to distinguish infectious virus from bits of noninfectious genetic fragments, are incapable of measuring actual virus, and are not approved for diagnostic use, the tests are being used by AIDS doctors every day to diagnose infection with HIV and as a basis for prescribing long-term treatment with protease inhibitors, chemotherapy compounds like AZT, powerful antibiotics and other drugs. PCR is routinely used to diagnose HIV infection in newborns, and as justification to treat infants with AZT, Bactrim and other potent chemicals.

PCR measurements do not correlate with amounts of T cells, with clinical symptoms of AIDS, or with levels of co-culturable HIV.147 In the only published study that compares viral load results with the detection of HIV by co-culture, a method of detection that is less precise than actual isolation, 53% of HIV positive AIDS patients with detectable levels of viral load, many with loads topping 200,000 and 300,000, had zero co-culturable HIV.147

A number of mainstream AIDS experts refute Ho's portrait of wildly multiplying and abundant HIV. Their objections have been published in Nature, Lancet and other science journals. Some, like former government AIDS researcher Dr. Cecil Fox dismiss Ho's ideas as "unconfirmed mathematical speculation."148 According to orthodox AIDS expert Dr. Michael Asher, "the numbers [of the viral load theory] just don't add up."148 Another prominent AIDS specialist, Dr. Mario Roderer, considers the viral load model of HIV pathogenesis a dead issue since "several well-designed and informative studies provide the final nails in the coffin for...the two Nature papers," while noted AIDS researcher Dr. Jay Levy warns that "medicine suffers when one is misled by numbers that are not relevant to the clinical problem involved..."149 Other critics have been more blunt, characterizing this new hypothesis of HIV as "a viral load of crap."150

Defined Terms

Pathogenesis: The process by which a disease or disorder originates and develops. Pathogenesis applies particularly to the cellular and physiological events involved in the process.
Co-culture: Detection of a virus in an artificial laboratory environment that contains replicating microorganisms or cells mixed with plasma or immune cells.
Genome: A Biochemical map or blueprint; the complete set of hereditary factors as contained in a set of chromosomes.

Where's the HIV?

 In accepting Gallo's AIDS virus hypothesis, researchers and physicians took for granted that Gallo had isolated a unique retrovirus, HIV, and that the proteins he used to construct the HIV antibody tests came from pure isolates of the virus. Since the announcement of Gallo's discovery of HIV however, a number of scientists have raised serious questions about what have been accepted as HIV isolates.

According to their claims, HIV, unlike other viruses, has never been isolated as an independent stable particle.151 These scientists assert that electron microscope pictures or micrographs of all HIV isolates originally produced by Gallo and by other AIDS researchers since show some objects that look like retroviruses along with a number of other microbial objects that clearly are not viruses, and that among these, the retrovirus-like objects called HIV are only observed in cell cultures that have been stimulated by certain chemicals.152

Isolation is the only direct and unambiguous evidence of a virus, and isolation of a virus from the uncultured plasma of a patient is the only proof that a person has an active viral infection.153 Cultures are artificial laboratory environments that contain replicating microorganisms or cells.

Normally, true isolation can be achieved without difficulty as people with an active viral infection will have lots of viruses in their plasma. This is not the case with HIV. In fact, there is no evidence that anyone has ever found what is called HIV in fresh plasma. Instead, AIDS researchers are only able to find what they call HIV when plasma or immune cells (co-cultures) and stimulating chemicals are added to cultures. Since artificially stimulated cultures can induce viral DNA to produce viruses even when the patient's plasma contains no virus, finding virus under these circumstances does not constitute evidence that patient plasma contains virus. True virus isolation requires using fresh, uncultured plasma.

When virus can be isolated from the fresh plasma of 99% of people who test positive in validation studies, the test can be considered 99% accurate. When claims of co-culture isolation are used to evaluate positive HIV test results, the accuracy is 0 to 10% for patients with no AIDS symptoms, and about 40% for patients who have symptoms of AIDS-defining illness. 154

The true accuracy of HIV antibody tests has never been established by determining what percentage of people who test positive on HIV antibody tests have actual HIV that can be isolated from their fresh, uncultured plasma. This, along with the fact that what is called HIV has been observed only in artificial laboratory growths stimulated by chemical agents, has led some scientists to conclude that HIV has never been isolated and that all HIV tests are invalid.

(Readers interested in further information on the isolation of HIV are encouraged to examine articles referenced at http://www.virusmyth.com .)

Defined Terms
Plasma: The natural solution that remains when white blood cells are removed from the blood.

References

135. Gallo R 1984 Science 224; Piatak M 1993 Science 259; Ho D 1991 New England journal of Medicine 324:961, Shaw G 1991 New England Journal of Medicine 324:954; Cooper 1992 Lancet 341:1099

136. Duesberg P 1996 Inventing the AIDS Virus Regnery Press, Washington DC pl74-180

137. Bialy H, Duesberg P March 1995 Letter to Nature. Source: AIDS: Virus or Drug Induced? Duesberg P (editor) 1996 Kluwer Academic Publishers, Netherlands

138. Ho D, et al 1995 Rapid Turnover of Plasma Virions and CD4 Lymphocytes in HIV-1 Infection Nature 373-123-126; Wei X, et al 1995 Nature 373:117-122

139. Katy Mullis at HEAL Los Angeles, October 25 1995

140. Philpott P, Johnson C 1996 Viral Load of Crap Reappraising AIDS Vol 4: 10 p2

141. Johnson C Viral Load and the PCR Continuum Vol 4:4 November/ December 1996

142. CDC faxback document #320320 sent in reply to an inquiry by Christine Johnson

143. Roche Amplicor PCR Diagnostics HIV- I Monitor test kit pamphlet

144. Defer C, et al 1992 Mttlticenter- Quality Control of PCR Detection of HIV DNA AIDS 6;659-663; Bush, et al 1992,journal of AIDS 5:872; Gerberding J 1994 Incidence and Prevalence of HIV, Hepatitis B, and CMV Among Health Care Personnel at Risk for Blood Exposure Journal of Infectious Disease 170:1410-1417; de Mendoza, et al 1998 False Positives for HIV Using Commercial Viral Load Quantification Assays AIDS 12:2076-2077; Rich J, et al 1999 Misdiagnosis of HIV Infection by HIV-1 Plasma Viral Load Testing: A Case Series, Annals of Internal Medicine 130:37-39

145. Schwartz D, et al 1997 Extensive Evaluation of a Seronegative Participant in an HIV-1 Vaccine Trial as a Result of False-Positive PCR, Lancet Vol 350 No 9073 p256

146. Rasnick D 1997 Kinetics Analysis of Consecutive HIV Proteolytic Cleavages of the Gag-Pol Polyprotein Journal of Biological Chemistry March 7 p6348-6353

147. Piatak M, et al 1993 Science 259-.1749-53

148. Roderer M 1998 Getting to the HAART of T Cell Dynamics Nature Medicine Vol 4:2 pl45-146- Levy J 1996 AIDS Surrogate Markers: Is There Truth in Numbers? JAMA Vol 276 pl6l-162

149. Levy J 1996 AIDS Surrogate Markers: Is There Truth in Numbers? JAMA Vol 276 pl6l-162

...

Page Properties
idtag

Author

  • Christine Maggiore

Publisher

  • -

Category

  • Viral Load

Topic

  • Viral Load Reliability

  • CD4 Reliability

Article Type

  • Editorial Article

Publish Year

  • 1996

Page Properties
idmeta

Meta Description

  • Research disputes HIV's "viral load" theory. Critics argue HIV isn't found in quantities to cause T cell destruction. Viral load measurement is controversial.

Summary

  • This text discusses the issue of viral load in relation to HIV/AIDS. It highlights the difficulty researchers have faced in finding enough HIV in people who test positive for the virus to explain compromised health. Some scientists argue that HIV has never been isolated and that all HIV tests are invalid. The text also mentions the use of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technology to measure viral load, which has been celebrated as a breakthrough in AIDS research. However, critics question the validity of viral load as a measure of disease progression. Overall, the text raises doubts about the accuracy and significance of viral load in understanding HIV/AIDS.

Meta Tag

  • Viral Load

  • HIV

  • AIDS

  • T Cells

  • Dr. David Ho

  • Dr. George Shaw

  • Polymerase Chain Reaction

  • CD4 T Cells

  • CD8 T Cells

  • Pathogenesis

  • Co-culture

  • Genome

Featured Image

Featured Image Alt Tag

  • Keyword of the image

By Christine Maggiore
This is a chapter from the book
What if everything you thought about AIDS was wrong?
http://www.aliveandwell.org

...

One glaring problem with the HIV/AIDS hypothesis is that researchers have been unable to find enough HIV (actual virus) in people who test positive to explain compromised health.

Even among patients suffering from the most severe AIDS-defining illnesses, HIV is never detected in quantities that could cause depletion of immune cells.135

In order to cause harm, a virus needs to infect at least one-third of all target cells, which in the case of AIDS are the T cells of the immune system, and kill these cells faster than they can be replaced. For example, with hepatitis or a common cold or flu, the responsible virus is readily found in quantities measuring millions or billions per milliliter (mL) of blood, and nothing can stop the virus from infecting all susceptible cells in the body except antiviral immunity. With AIDS, an average of only ten HIVs are found per mL of blood, and the normal sign of antiviral immunity, antibodies, are said to indicate illness.136

Another inconsistency with the idea that HIV causes AIDS is that HIV is non-cytotoxic. This means that when HIV replicates, it does not kill the host cell. Other viruses that cause disease are cytotoxic; they destroy the cell they infect when they reproduce, and rapidly claim 30% to 60% of target cells. Since the acceptance of HIV as the cause of AIDS in 1984, AIDS researchers have proposed a multitude of hypotheses about HIV's ability to provoke cell destruction through elaborate and as yet unproven indirect mechanisms while searching in vain for ways to explain how a non-cytotoxic virus can eliminate T cells and cause AIDS.

For almost a decade, the latency notion was used to justify some of the paradoxical qualities attributed to HIV. Experts claimed that HIV was a slow virus that remained inactive or latent for a period of time before becoming active and destroying immune cells. This idea gained universal acceptance despite the fact that significant quantities of HIV were not found when HIV should have been at its most active when AIDS patients are acutely ill.137

The loose ends of the HIV hypothesis were finally thought to have been tied in 1995 with two papers by a team of AIDS researchers led by Dr. David Ho of the Aaron Diamond Research Center and Dr. George Shaw of the University of Alabama. Ho and Shaw offered what they characterized as indisputable evidence that HIV is active from the moment of infection, and present in quantities sufficient to cause massive T cell destruction.138 They claimed to find an average of over 100,000 HIVs per mL of blood in AIDS patients by using a virus counting method based on the new technology of polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

Their papers asserted that HIV has always been present and active in enormous quantities, but that its presence and activity could not be measured by standard means, and that scientists were looking for the wrong thing to measure. Until 1995, the method for finding and quantifying a virus was by isolation of the virus. This simple, direct method has been successfully applied to every virus except HIV. Instead, proponents of viral load assert that scientists must look for fragments of genetic materials rather than isolating the virus.

PCR is an innovative technique that enables scientists to take a sample of blood containing an otherwise undetectable number of DNA or RNA molecules and produce detectable quantities of fragments from these few original molecules. Forbes magazine described PCR as "biotechnology's version of the Xerox machine." Dr. Kary Mullis, who won a Nobel Prize for this revolutionary creation, explains that "PCR makes it possible to identify a needle in a haystack by turning the needle into a haystack."139 While PCR has provided many realms of science and industry with an effective new tool, its application to AIDS research has been far more misleading than useful.

Ho and other researchers employed PCR to find, not HIV, but fragments of RNA, the genetic material in the viral core. Using the logic that each HIV virus particle contains two HIV RNAs, they assumed that every two RNA pieces indicated by PCR must correspond to one HIV viral particle, and they called the sum of what is copied, multiplied, counted, and divided, "viral load."

Viral load has been celebrated in the press as an astounding breakthrough in AIDS research, and has won Dr. David Ho numerous awards including Time magazine's 1996 Man of the Year. Viral load is also the measure by which new AIDS drugs are deemed effective. Protease inhibitors were approved for use based solely on their alleged ability to reduce "viral load." The media, AIDS organizations and most AIDS doctors have uncritically accepted the viral load hypothesis as fact.

According to the viral load hypothesis, billions of HIV are busy infecting CD4 T cells every day from the moment a person is exposed, and killer immune cells (CD8 T cells) continuously destroy billions of CD4 cells that host active HIV infection, while new, uninfected CD4s quickly replace the billions destroyed by the killer cells.140 Eventually, after one to 15 years of this microscopic battle, the virus wears out the immune system allowing AIDS-defining illnesses to develop. Proponents of viral load claim that the reason this incredible activity was never noticed before is that the CD4s replicate so quickly, few HIV infected T cells ever make it into the blood where they can be measured.140

However, the viral load hypothesis fails to answer two important and unsettling questions: If billions of HIV are present, why is PCR necessary to find them? And if PCR is the only way HIV can be detected, how is it possible for scientists to verify the results of PCR?

Another problem with viral load is that PCR detects and multiplies single genes, not virus, and most often only fragments of genes. When it detects two or three genetic fragments out of a possible dozen complete genes, this is not proof that all the genes or the complete genome are present, or that a complete HIV viral particle is present.141 Further, a person can carry a whole retroviral genome in their cells for an entire lifetime without ever producing a single virus.

The FDA has not approved PCR viral load for HIV screening or for diagnostic purposes. The CDC acknowledges that the specificity and sensitivity of PCR are "unknown" and that "PCR is not recommended and is not licensed for routine diagnostic purposes."142 The viral load test manufacturers' literature warn "the test is not intended to be used as a screening test for HIV or as a diagnostic test to confirm the presence of HIV..."143

Although no research has specifically studied PCR tests on HIV negative subjects, the medical literature records many incidents of detectable levels of viral load found in persons who are HIV negative.144

A group of AIDS researchers from the Johns Hopkins School of Public Health recently lamented the inaccuracies of PCR viral load, describing the test as unreliable and expensive when several attempts to verify PCR produced conflicting results.145 A recent paper by AIDS reappraiser Dr. David Rasnick published in the Journal of Biological Chemistry demonstrates that at least 99.8% of what viral load tests measure are noninfectious virus particles, and notes that PCR should be replaced by a test that measures actual HIV in blood plasma.146

...

Although PCR viral load tests are unable to distinguish infectious virus from bits of noninfectious genetic fragments, are incapable of measuring actual virus, and are not approved for diagnostic use, the tests are being used by AIDS doctors every day to diagnose infection with HIV and as a basis for prescribing long-term treatment with protease inhibitors, chemotherapy compounds like AZT, powerful antibiotics and other drugs. PCR is routinely used to diagnose HIV infection in newborns, and as justification to treat infants with AZT, Bactrim and other potent chemicals.

PCR measurements do not correlate with amounts of T cells, with clinical symptoms of AIDS, or with levels of co-culturable HIV.147 In the only published study that compares viral load results with the detection of HIV by co-culture, a method of detection that is less precise than actual isolation, 53% of HIV positive AIDS patients with detectable levels of viral load, many with loads topping 200,000 and 300,000, had zero co-culturable HIV.147

A number of mainstream AIDS experts refute Ho's portrait of wildly multiplying and abundant HIV. Their objections have been published in Nature, Lancet and other science journals. Some, like former government AIDS researcher Dr. Cecil Fox dismiss Ho's ideas as "unconfirmed mathematical speculation."148 According to orthodox AIDS expert Dr. Michael Asher, "the numbers [of the viral load theory] just don't add up."148 Another prominent AIDS specialist, Dr. Mario Roderer, considers the viral load model of HIV pathogenesis a dead issue since "several well-designed and informative studies provide the final nails in the coffin for...the two Nature papers," while noted AIDS researcher Dr. Jay Levy warns that "medicine suffers when one is misled by numbers that are not relevant to the clinical problem involved..."149 Other critics have been more blunt, characterizing this new hypothesis of HIV as "a viral load of crap."150

Defined Terms

Pathogenesis: The process by which a disease or disorder originates and develops. Pathogenesis applies particularly to the cellular and physiological events involved in the process.
Co-culture: Detection of a virus in an artificial laboratory environment that contains replicating microorganisms or cells mixed with plasma or immune cells.
Genome: A Biochemical map or blueprint; the complete set of hereditary factors as contained in a set of chromosomes.

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Where's the HIV?

In accepting Gallo's AIDS virus hypothesis, researchers and physicians took for granted that Gallo had isolated a unique retrovirus, HIV, and that the proteins he used to construct the HIV antibody tests came from pure isolates of the virus. Since the announcement of Gallo's discovery of HIV however, a number of scientists have raised serious questions about what have been accepted as HIV isolates.

According to their claims, HIV, unlike other viruses, has never been isolated as an independent stable particle.151 These scientists assert that electron microscope pictures or micrographs of all HIV isolates originally produced by Gallo and by other AIDS researchers since show some objects that look like retroviruses along with a number of other microbial objects that clearly are not viruses, and that among these, the retrovirus-like objects called HIV are only observed in cell cultures that have been stimulated by certain chemicals.152

Isolation is the only direct and unambiguous evidence of a virus, and isolation of a virus from the uncultured plasma of a patient is the only proof that a person has an active viral infection.153 Cultures are artificial laboratory environments that contain replicating microorganisms or cells.

Normally, true isolation can be achieved without difficulty as people with an active viral infection will have lots of viruses in their plasma. This is not the case with HIV. In fact, there is no evidence that anyone has ever found what is called HIV in fresh plasma. Instead, AIDS researchers are only able to find what they call HIV when plasma or immune cells (co-cultures) and stimulating chemicals are added to cultures. Since artificially stimulated cultures can induce viral DNA to produce viruses even when the patient's plasma contains no virus, finding virus under these circumstances does not constitute evidence that patient plasma contains virus. True virus isolation requires using fresh, uncultured plasma.

When virus can be isolated from the fresh plasma of 99% of people who test positive in validation studies, the test can be considered 99% accurate. When claims of co-culture isolation are used to evaluate positive HIV test results, the accuracy is 0 to 10% for patients with no AIDS symptoms, and about 40% for patients who have symptoms of AIDS-defining illness. 154

The true accuracy of HIV antibody tests has never been established by determining what percentage of people who test positive on HIV antibody tests have actual HIV that can be isolated from their fresh, uncultured plasma. This, along with the fact that what is called HIV has been observed only in artificial laboratory growths stimulated by chemical agents, has led some scientists to conclude that HIV has never been isolated and that all HIV tests are invalid.

(Readers interested in further information on the isolation of HIV are encouraged to examine articles referenced at http://www.virusmyth.com .)

Defined Terms

Plasma: The natural solution that remains when white blood cells are removed from the blood.

References

Expand
titleClick here to expand..
All referenced text is excerpted from the 4th edition (second printing) of the book What If Everything You Thought You Knew About AIDS Was Wrong? and wherever possible, has been updated for this web site.

  1. In the United States, AIDS = 28 old illnesses and one non-illness:
    1983 original AIDS definition (12 illnesses): Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia, Kaposi's sarcoma, toxoplasmosis, strongyloidosis, aspergillosis, cryptococcosis, candidiasis, cryptosporidiosis, cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex, progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, lymphoma of the brain
    1985 revised definition (seven more old illnesses added): Mycobacterium avium complex, histoplasmosis, isosporiasis, Burkitt's lymphoma, immunoblastic lymphoma, candidiasis of the bronchi, trachea and lungs, and a positive HIV antibody test.
    1987 revised definition (six additional illnesses): Encephalopathy, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, wasting syndrome, coccidioidomycosis, cytomegalovirus retinitis, Salmonella septicemia. HIV antibody test no longer required.
    1993 revised definition (three more illnesses plus one surrogate marker): Recurrent bacterial pneumonia, invasive cervical cancer, pulmonary tuberculosis, T Cell count of <200 or <14% of total lymphocytes (non-illness).
    Source: Duesberg P, Yiamouyannis J, 1995 AIDS: The Good News Is HIV Doesn't Cause It Health Action Press

  2. US Centers for Disease Control 1994 HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report Year-end edition 1993

  3. Navarro M AIDS Definition Widened to Include Blood Cell Count August 8 1993 New York Times; Altman L AIDS Cases Increase Among Heterosexuals March 11 1994 New York Times

  4. US Centers for Disease Control HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report Year-end editions 1998, 1997, 1996, 1995, 1994, 1993

  5. US Centers for Disease Control 1998 HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report Year-end edition 1997 Table11 p17

  6. US Centers for Disease Control 1999 HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report Year-end edition 1998 p43

  7. Duesberg P 1993 The HIV Gap in National Statistics Bio/Technology 11:955-6

  8. Laboratory Centre for Disease Control, Health Canada, 1998 HIV and AIDS in Canada: Surveillance Report to December 31, 1997; US Centers for Disease Control 1999 HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report Year-end 1998

  9. US Centers for Disease Control 1998 HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report Year-end edition 1997 Figure 6 p25; US Centers for Disease Control 1999 HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report Year-end edition 1998

  10. World Health Organization 1985 Bangui definition for AIDS in Africa (current use confirmed by WHO April 1999); WHO case definitions for AIDS surveillance in adults and adolescents, Weekly Epidemiological Record September 1994; 69:273-80 (current use confirmed by WHO April 1999)

  11. Duesberg P 1996 Inventing the AIDS Virus: Regnery Press, Washington DC p141-145

  12. Duesberg P 1996 Inventing the AIDS Virus: Regnery Press, Washington DC p54-58

  13. Carins J 1978 Cancer: Science and Society WH Freeman and Company, San Francisco

  14. Duesberg P, Rasnick D 1998 The AIDS Dilemma: Drug Diseases Blamed on a Passenger Virus Genetica 104:85-132; Mullis K 1998 Dancing Naked in the Mindfield Pantheon Books, New York p171-190; Shenton J 1998 Positively False St Martin's Press, New York p6-17

  15. Mullis K 1988 Dancing Naked in the Mindfield Pantheon Books, New York p 178; Duesberg P 1996 Inventing the AIDS Virus Regnery Press, Washington DC p 89-96

  16. Altman L New York Times, April 23 1984

  17. Altman L Researchers Believe AIDS Virus is Found New York Times, April 24 1984 (Dr. James Curran, head of the CDC's AIDS investigating team, calls discovery "the virus that causes AIDS") 

  18. Gallo found HIV in only 26 of 63 AIDS patients (41%) Source: Gallo R May 4 1984 Science Volume 224 p502

  19. In 1983, Montagnier sent Gallo "retrovirus particles" (LAV) taken from the lymph node of a male homosexual without AIDS. Source: Science May 20 1983, Vol 220; the virus Gallo claimed to have discovered in 1984 was found to actually be Montagnier's LAV. Source: New Scientist, February 12 1987

  20. Dingell J Misconduct in Medical Research, New England Journal of Medicine 1993 328:1610-1615; Co-Discoverer of HIV Loses Bid to Regain Job AIDS Policy and Law May 14 1999 Vol 14 No 9; Crewdson J In Gallo Case, Truth Termed a Casualty: Science Subverted in AIDS Research Chicago Tribune, January 1 1995

  21. Baffour A Are 26 Million Africans Dying of AIDS? December 1998 New African Magazine p34-42

  22. Duesberg P Inventing the AIDS Virus Regnery Press, Washington DC; Root-Bernstein R 1993 Rethinking AIDS The Free Press, New York

  23. Cordes R, et al 1995 Pitfalls in HIV Testing Postgraduate Medicine 98:177; Langedijk J, et al 1992 Identification of Cross-reaction Epitopes Recognized by HIV-1 False-positive Sera AIDS 6:1547-1548; Strandstrom H, et al 1990 Studies with Canine Sera that Contain Antibodies which Recognize HIV Structural Proteins Cancer Research, September 1:50(17 Suppl):56285-56305; Germanson T 1989 Screening for HIV: Can We Afford the Confusion of the False Positive Rate? Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 42:1235; Weiss R, et al 1988 HIV Testing is the Answer-What's the Question? New England Journal of Medicine 319:1010-1012; Burke, et al 1988 Measurement of the False Positive Rate in a Screening Program for HIV Infections New England Journal of Medicine 319(15):961-964; US News and World Report, November 23 1987 p22c; Jackson G, et al 1988 Passive Immunoneutralisation of Human Immuno-deficiency Virus in Patients with Advanced AIDS Lancet, September 17:647

  24. Papadopulos-Eleopulos E, et al 1993 Is a Positive Western Blot Proof of HIV Infection? Bio/Technology Journal Vol 11 p696-707

  25. Papadopulos-Eleopulos E, et al 1993 Has Gallo Proven the Role of HIV in AIDS? Emergency Medicine 5:113-123

  26. Papadopulos-Eleopulous E, et al 1993 Is a Positive Western Blot Proof of HIV Infection? Bio/Technology Vol. 11

  27. Strandstrom H, et al 1990 Studies with Canine Sera which Recognise HIV Structural Proteins, Cancer Research 50:5628s-5630s. Source: Testing, Testing, 1,2,3... Turner V 1996 Contiuum Vol 3:5 p8-11

  28. Papadopolus-Eleopulos E, et al 1993 Is a Positive Western Blot Proof of HIV Infection? Bio/Technology Journal Vol 11 p696-701; Quantum Clinical Laboratory, Los Angeles, CA: HIV antibody test results for Christine Maggiore April 9 1992 HIV reactive, WB positive positive; March 27 1993 HIV reactive, WB indeterminate; September 1 1993 HIV non-reactive

  29. Abbott Laboratory's ELISA HIV antibody test kit pamphlet

  30. Continuum Vol 3:4 with thanks to Val Turner, Royal Perth Hospital, Australia; Bio/Technology June 1993 11:696-707

  31. Roche Amplicor PCR Diagnostics HIV-1 Monitor test kit pamphlet

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  33. NBC Nightly News, March 10 1995: Robert Hager of NBC reported that the CDC was about to lower estimates they knew were too high. CDC spokesperson Michelle Bond remarked that the CDC officials were reluctant to report lower numbers for fear of adverse budgetary consequences.

  34. All STDs except genital herpes: US Centers for Disease Control 1997, Table 1: Cases of STDs reported by state health departments in US 1941-1997, STD Surveillance p65-66. Genital herpes: Meyer T March 24 1998 Associated Press, Atlanta (Meyer quotes CDC and Dr. Charles Bell of Texas Department of Health)

  35. US Centers for Disease Control 2003 HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report Year-end edition 2002 (Deaths in persons with AIDS, cumulative totals through December 2002)

  36. US Centers for Disease Control HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report Year-end edition states "Reported deaths are not necessarily caused by HIV-related disease"

  37. CDC Wonder website; The New York Times, death count, all ages, all races, both genders 1981-2002

  38. Lazarou J, et al 1998 Incidence of Adverse Drug Reactions in Hospitalized Patients (1966-1996) Journal of the American Medical Association, 279:1200; Manmaney T Medications Kill 100,000 Annually Los Angeles Times April 15 1998; CDC Wonder website 2004

  39. PBS 1998 The American Experience: Influenza 1918

  40. World Health Organization Weekly Epidemiological Record November 2001 (current)

  41. UNAIDS June 1998 Report on the Global Epidemic; World Health Organization June 1998, Weekly Epidemiological Record

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  43. Geshekter C 1997 AIDS: The Leading Cause of Unjustified Hysteria, Reappraising AIDS, February Vol 5:2

  44. Institute of Medicine (IOM) 1996 Scientific Opportunities and Public Needs; Webster K Disproportionate Funding Associated Press June 16 1999

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  48. Figures for AIDS by Risk Groups are based on cumulative figures through 1998 and do not include cases where risk status was not assessed; AIDS by Health Status are for years 1993 through 1997 using Table 11 of the 93-97 US CDC HIV/AIDS Surveillance Reports (1997 was the last year the CDC published the data in Table 11); AIDS by Gender is based on cumulative figures through 1998

  49. US Centers for Disease Control 1999 HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report Year-end 1998

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  53. Holding R, Carlsen W 1998 Epidemic Ravages Caregivers San Francisco Chronicle p1, A6-A8

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  58. Source: National Center for Health Statistics July 1996 703/821-8955: Cumulative SIDS deaths in children under 1 year of age 1983-1996, 1997 preliminary, 1981-1982 computed by average of years 1983-1993

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  73. US Centers for Disease Control 1998 HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report Year-end 1997 p25 Figure 6

  74. US Centers for Disease Control 1998 HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report Year-end 1997 p25 Figure 6

  75. POZ magazine July 1999: Glaxo-Wellcome Ad for Ziagen (abacavir sulfate), December 1998 MG-001; Merck Ad for Crixivan (indinavir) Merck and Co, Inc. 1998 99-4084; Roxanne Ad for Viramune (nevirapine) July 1999, RX-2140 (4/98); Glaxo-Wellcome Ad for Combivir (lamivudine/zidovudine) March 1999

  76. POZ magazine July 1999: Glaxo-Wellcome Ad for Combivir

  77. Hammer S, et al 1997 A Controlled Trial of Two Nucleoside Analogues Indinavir in Persons with HIV New England Journal of Medicine 337:725-733 

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  104. Philpott P Maine Mother Wins Court Fight Against HIV Doctors Reappraising AIDS Vol 6 October 10 1998

  105. Mother Wins Right to Stop HIV Drugs New York Times April 20 1999; Dateline NBC January 25, 1999; A Mother's Instinct People Magazine October 5 1998 p157-158

  106. News Broadcast, CJOB 68 August 18 1999; PeritzI Mother Fights to Block Son's HIV Drug Therapy The Globe and Mail (Canada) August 18 1999

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  117. Merck ad for Crixivan A&U magazine July 1999 99-4084 910 (508) CRX

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  120. AIDS expert Dr. Bruce Walker on ABC News Nightline May 19 1999 11:35 PM EST

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  122. POZ magazine July 1999: Glaxo-Wellcome Ad for Ziagen (abacavir sulfate), December 1998 MG-001; Merck Ad for Crixivan (indinavir) Merck and Co, Inc. 1998 99-4084; Roxanne Ad for Viramune (nevirapine) July 1999, RX-2140 (4/98); Glaxo-Wellcome Ad for Combivir (lamivudine/zidovudine) March 1999

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  130. The Morning After POZ magazine February 1997

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  133. Interview with Christine Maggiore September 1997 

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  142. CDC faxback document #320320 sent in reply to an inquiry by Christine Johnson

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  157. Project Inform letter to Dr. Bruce Alberts, President of the National Academy of Sciences, July 31 1997: Endorsements are for signers as of August 20 1997

  158. Letter to Christine Maggiore from Ric Parish, PLUS Programs Manager, May 30 1997

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  164. Interview with Christine Maggiore August 25 1999

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  169. McGinley L Price of Success: Powerful Treatments Create Growing Rift Among AIDS Groups Wall Street Journal December 20 1996

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  172. US Centers for Disease Control HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report Year-end editions through 1998

  173. WHO website http://hivinsite.ucsf.edu/social/un/2098.3ce6.html Ratios of estimated AIDS cases/reported AIDS cases for African countries with highest estimated AIDS cases: Angola 22/1; Congo 13/1; Ethiopia 55/1; Kenya 9/1; Madagascar 69/1; Mozambique 48/1; Nigeria 35/1; South Africa 33/1; Uganda 37/1; Zimbabwe 10/1. For all African countries (with available data) combined, the ratio of estimated AIDS cases to reported AIDS cases is 16/1

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  178. Laboratory Centre for Disease Control, Health Canada, 1998 HIV and AIDS in Canada: Surveillance Report to December 31 1997 p1

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